Working memory training: from metaphors to models

A first research wave on working memory (WM) training created an atmosphere of novelty and enthusiasm. Studies carried out with typical or atypical participants in different age ranges showed that training can improve WM efficiency, and the effects of training can transfer to IQ tests and other valued cognitive abilities (e. A second wave of research, in contrast, raised problems and criticisms, thus prompting a vein of skepticism. Issues brought to the fore concerned, for instance, adequacy of the control groups, the appropriate analysis of near and far transfer effects, and how to control for task-specific learning A third research wave has started perhaps—and anyway, seems to be urgently needed. Current research should focus on clarifying which effects are obtained by which training programs. Training-related gains on tasks typical of daily life or on school outcomes (when children are considered), and their maintenance, should also be explored, as well as the role of individual differences, motivational and contextual factors, as discussed below. Most important, the theoretical framework of WM training research needs to be spelled out more clearly. (See also von Bastian and Oberauer, 2014). The first wave yielded a wealth of potentially useful results, but most studies were rather atheoretical. Different research groups used different WM measures, such as complex span or n-back tasks. Was there a clear rationale for preferring one WM measure over another? Often, training involved a wide range of WM skills and executive functions; were any training components critical in producing the effects? In addition to specific methodological problems, we must consider a possible bias against publishing non-significant results, and potential interest conflicts inherent in carrying out research in collaboration with corporations that sell commercial WM training programs. These considerations point to a need to map the ground more clearly, with respect to which aspects of training produce which effects. However, this operation requires clear theoretical distinctions. A simple metaphor—the " muscular metaphor " —seems to underlie many first-wave studies: doing WM gymnastics can strengthen the WM system, making it grow like a well-trained muscle; consequently, a larger WM can manage heavier workloads in complex cognitive tasks. Within this simple metaphorical framework, selecting one or another measure of WM is relatively unimportant. Moreover, using an unanalyzed mix of training components is no problem at all; the more varied the WM gymnastics, the more likely that it strengthens the system. However, this metaphor is unlikely to …